“BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY AS A MEANS TO END FRAUD IN LAND CONVEYANCING”

BY BYARUHANGA JOSHUA MORRIS[1]

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the potential of blockchain technology to mitigate fraud in land conveyancing in Uganda. Blockchain, a decentralised and transparent ledger system, offers secure and verifiable transaction records, which could significantly reduce fraudulent activities in land transactions.

Despite introducing a digital land registry system in Uganda in 2013, land fraud remains prevalent. The paper examines the current land registration practices in Uganda, the persistent issues of fraud, and how blockchain can address these challenges by enhancing transparency, security, and efficiency in the registration and transfer of land titles.

Through a comprehensive analysis, the paper aims to demonstrate the transformative impact of blockchain technology on land administration and fraud prevention.

1.0: Introduction

Blockchain technology is a transformative innovation that has gained significant interest and has evolved to become a fundamental aspect of organisations and a prominent topic in recent academic research[2] . It functions as a distributed and decentralised ledger that enables transparent and certified data sharing .

This technology facilitates the secure transfer of assets, data, and coins between users[3]. By reducing the barrier for trading entities to engage in the market, blockchain technology streamlines transactions and influences various applications Users have the ability to add, view, and validate transactions on the distributed ledger, thereby enhancing transparency and security[4]. Blockchain is anticipated to revolutionize transaction processes and have a substantial impact on a wide array of applications .

The evolution of blockchain technology from its initial version centered on cryptocurrencies and distributed ledgers , which incorporates smart contracts. In the biomedical and healthcare sectors, blockchain distributed ledger technologies offer advantages over traditional databases, demonstrating potential for diverse applications.

Additionally, blockchain technology addresses legal concerns and optimizes costs in electronic interactions, creating new possibilities for electronic registers and network economies . The application of blockchain extends across various sectors, including supply chain management, where it enables traceability and enhances transparency.

In terms of security, blockchain technology provides a decentralized architecture for secure data sharing among authorized entities, combating fraud and ensuring trust. Furthermore, blockchain technology is integrated into accounting systems, defining various types of blockchains based on permission models .

This technology has attracted considerable attention from academia, industry, and media, with applications spanning from smart contracts to decentralized finance.

In conclusion, blockchain technology is a transformative innovation with diverse applications across industries, offering benefits such as decentralization, persistency, anonymity, and auditability Its decentralized and immutable nature positions it as a valuable tool for enhancing transparency, security, and efficiency in various processes and sectors.

1.1 : Fraud in Land Dealings in Uganda

Fraud in Land transactions is a prevalent problem in Uganda's land conveyancing. Fraud, in Fredrick Jk Zaabwe v Orient Bank Ltd and 5 Ors (Civil Appeal No. 4 of 2006) [2007] UGSC 21 (10 July 2007)[5], relying on the Blacks law dictionary[6] , was defined to mean the intentional perversion of the truth by a person to induce another in reliance upon it to part with some valuable thing belonging to him or her or to surrender a legal right.

The office of the registrar is very important in the Land conveyancing system in Uganda, as it is usually the 1st place where Fraud on a Land Title can be discovered. Section 201 of the Registration of Titles Act places a duty on the purchaser of land to carry out due diligence by inspecting the registry book.

This duty was also stressed in the case of Sir John Bagaire v Ausi Matovu CACA No.7 of 1996, where Kikonyogo DCJ quoted Okello JA ( as he was then) emphatically states that ‘Lands are not vegetables that are bought from unknown sellers. Land is valuable property and buyers are expected to make thorough investigations not only of the land but also of the sellers before purchase”.

With the changing times, in 2013, as a means to offer an efficient, easy-to-assess Land registry, the Ugandan government in 2013 embarked on having a Digital land registry system.

1.2: The Shift in the Establishment of the Digital Land Registry System in Uganda

The Ugandan government launched a digital land registry system in 2013 to reduce fraud and land rights disputes[7].

The system was a partnership between Uganda’s Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development and the French company IGN FI[8], and was financed by a World Bank loan .

The digitization of the land registry aimed to modernize the complex procedures that govern land ownership in Uganda, which had been manual since its inception in 1908.

The new Land Information System aimed to retrieve land records in a timely manner, just a click away, and replace the manual system of accessing land registry services. The new land titles created by the system have bar codes that make it more difficult to forge.

The time required to produce a land title has been reduced from 52 days to 10 days, and the system is operational in all 22 Ministerial Zonal Offices( MZO’s) of Uganda[9]

Despite the introduction of the Digital Land registry in 2013, Uganda is still a victim of Fraud in Land transactions.

In a newspaper article, "Four charged in Mukono over fraudulent sale of Land" reports a case where four individuals were charged with fraudulently selling land belonging to the late Sarah Rosemary Mulira.

The suspects allegedly procured a certificate of title and forged documents for the purchase of a 28-acre piece of land in Mukono. They were accused of transferring the land into their names after the death of Mulira, with the intention of using it as collateral to secure a loan. The suspects were charged with fraudulent procurement of a certificate of a land title, forgery, uttering a false document, and conspiracy to commit a felony.

The case highlights the prevalence of land fraud and the need to address the associated challenges in Uganda[10].

In another newspaper article, "Land fraud cases increased in 2022 – Police", reports that land fraud cases are on the rise in Uganda. According to the Police's 2022 Annual Crime Report, a total of 561 cases of land-related crimes were reported to the Police in 2022, compared to 332 cases reported in 2021, representing a 6% increase.

The report further indicates that 150 cases were sent to the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions and the resident state attorney for legal guidance. The most common offences in this category include fraudulent procurement of a certificate of title, obtaining registration by false pretence, criminal trespass, obtaining money by false pretence on grounds of selling land, and forgery.

The significant increase in land fraud cases underscores the need to address the challenges associated with land transactions and ownership in Uganda[11]. The above articles highlights the fact that Uganda’s land conveyancing system still faces a problem of fraud, even after the inauguration of the Digital Land Registry system 11 years ago.

1.3: Registration of Titles

Registration of Titles refers to the process of officially recording and documenting ownership rights and interests in land or property. It is an important component of land documentation and certification, providing legal recognition and protection to landowners[12].

The registration of titles serves several purposes, including establishing a clear and definitive record of ownership, facilitating transactions and transfers of land, and providing security of tenure[13].

The process of registration typically involves the submission of relevant documents and information to a government authority responsible for land administration, such as a land registry or land commission. These documents may include deeds, contracts, surveys, and other evidence of ownership or rights[14].

The registry offices then examines the documents, verifies the information provided, and updates the official register or database with the new ownership information. The registration of titles has been the subject of extensive research and analysis in various countries and contexts[15]. The factors influencing land title registration practices, the impact of registration on land security and tenure, and the challenges and opportunities associated with the process[16].

For example, a study conducted by Umar, B. and Banda, D. (2021). Challenges and opportunities for rural men and women in land conversion processes in central zambia. University of Zambia Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences, 5(4), 53-68.[17] have explored the effects of land registration on inequality, insecurity, and exclusion, particularly for marginalized groups such as women and herders Other research[18] has focused on the role of land titling in promoting economic development, access to finance, and innovation in agriculture.

According to Brown, A. [19] the registration of titles has raised concerns about its limitations and potential drawbacks. Some argue that formal title registration may exclude those who cannot afford the associated costs or discriminate against those without occupancy rights. The effectiveness of land titling helps in addressing broader issues of land governance, tenure security, and sustainable development[20].

In conclusion, the registration of titles is a crucial process for establishing and protecting ownership rights in land and property. It provides legal recognition, facilitates transactions, and contributes to land security and tenure. However, there are ongoing debates and challenges surrounding the implementation and impact of land title registration, particularly in relation to issues of inequality, exclusion, and sustainability.

According to Nakayi, R. (2022). Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. Journal of African Law, 67(1), 23-43 [21] The Registration of Titles in Uganda is a system of land registration that operates under the Torrens system.

The Torrens system, which originated in Australia, is a system of land registration that confers primary responsibility for registering and guaranteeing the security of land titles to the state Under this system, a certificate of title is considered indefeasible and conclusive evidence of ownership, except in cases of fraud by the registered proprietor [22] .

According to Nakayi, R. (2022), in Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. [23] the Torrens system evolved in Uganda with the introduction of the Registration of Title Act in 1922 [24];

This act provided for the registration of various types of land, including mailo and native freehold land, and established a statutory code for dealing with land transactions[25] This system was also applied in the case of Barclays Bank D.C.O v Gulu Millers 1959 EA 540 & 549 .

The introduction of this act marked a shift from the traditional rules of land ownership to a system based on registration [26]. The Torrens system in Uganda has faced challenges in its evolution and practical application. One challenge is the socio-political context of Uganda, which has hindered the full realisation of the system[27].

Additionally, the system has been criticised for producing unfavourable outcomes, such as fraud through double titling, illegal entries in the register, and spurious caveats [28]. These challenges highlight the need for the government to address the socio-political and administrative issues inhibiting the evolution and practical application of the Torrens system in Uganda [29].

The Torrens system is known for its future-oriented approach and its emphasis on dynamic security [30]. It aims to create fresh and indefeasible titles that are independent of their predecessors [31]. However, this focus on the future and the production of new titles can overlook the historical and cultural connections that some communities have with the land [32]. The Torrens system's "curtain" and "mirror" principles, which block certain realities from view, can disregard the particular histories and relationships with land that are not protected by property law [33].

The Torrens System of registration of titles originated in Australia and was developed by Robert Torrens in 1858. It was designed to make land a liquid asset and simplify the transfer of land ownership[34]. The system shifted the legal basis of title from a history of prior possession to a singular act of registration [35]. This eliminated the need for a chain of title and made the registration of land rights more efficient and secure [36].

According to Keenan, S. (2018). From historical chains to derivative futures: title registries as time machines. Social & Cultural Geography, 20(3), 283-303 [37] the Torrens System of registration of titles, also known as Title by Registration, has essential features that provide security and infeasibility of title in the Ugandan context [38].

According to Ganiron, T. and Australasia, N. (2014). Analysis of double meridian distance for a closed traverse area towards developing a contour map and land title. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review,[39], the system operates on the principle of "title by registration" rather than "registration of title " .

According to Abdulai, R. and Ochieng, E. (2017). Land registration and landownership security. Property Management, 35(1),[40], land rights under the torrens system are legally recognised and protected upon the conclusion of an agreement or contract between the land guarantor/transferor and land grantee/transferee[41].

The agreement or contract, along with its key contents, is entered into the public registry to provide public notice of the existence of the land rights [42]. This ensures that challenges to such rights will be handled through civil litigation [43]. states that one of the key features of the Torrens System is the issuance of a Certificate of Title, which is an indefeasible and conclusive evidence of ownership. The state takes primary responsibility for registering the title and guaranteeing its security [44].

The Certificate of Title provides a guarantee of ownership security, making landownership indefeasible or unimpeachable[45]. However, it is important to note that the Torrens System is not without challenges. The system remains immature in Uganda and is hampered by the socio-political context of the country [46] . There have been cases of fraud through double titling, illegal entries in the register, and spurious caveats [47].

In the Ugandan context, the Torrens System has been implemented through the land registration system in rural areas[48] . Land disputes are decided by the courts based on land information obtained from the land administration offices, which are responsible for maintaining the land registration system[49]. The system aims to provide accurate and reliable information for resolving land disputes and ensuring the security of land rights.

The essential features of the Torrens System of registration of titles in the Ugandan context include the legal recognition and protection of land rights through the conclusion of an agreement or contract, the entry of key contents into the public registry, the issuance of a Certificate of Title as indefeasible evidence of ownership, and the responsibility of the state in guaranteeing the security of registered titles. However, challenges such as fraud and the immaturity of the system persist. The implementation of the Torrens System in Uganda has been focused on the rural areas through the land registration system.

According to Nakayi, R., in Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. [50] Fraud is “an intentional perversion of truth for the purpose of inducing another in reliance upon it to part with some valuable thing belonging to him or to surrender a legal right.… Anything calculated to deceive, whether by a single act or combination, or by suppression of truth, or … whether it is by direct falsehood … innuendo by speech … silence, word of mouth … includes… any unfair way by which another is cheated.”[51]

Fraud obliterates the concept of indefeasible title, but cannot be evoked to challenge the title of a bona fide purchaser for valuable consideration without notice of it.[54]

In Sejjaka Nalima v Rebecca Musoke, to qualify as a bona fide purchaser, one must (i) have a valid title from a person registered as a proprietor; (ii) have paid valuable consideration; and (iii) have acted in good faith without notice of fraud (actual or constructive).[55] Section 77 RTA provides that “[a]ny certificate of title, entry, removal of encumbrances, or cancellation, in the register book, procured or made by fraud, shall be void as against all parties or privies to the fraud”.

Frederick JK Zaabwe v Orient Bank and 5 Others emphasizes the importance of always ascertaining what fraud is, its perpetrators and whether the respondents were aware of it.[56] The appellant borrowed money from Sewanyana and executed a power of attorney in respect of his land to the second respondent company, where Sewanyana was director and shareholder.

In return he got a check for UGX 1 million, which was not honoured. The company used the power of attorney to borrow money from the first respondent and defaulted on the mortgage. The first respondent sold the land to Ali Hussein. Kanyeihamba JSC challenged the title of Hussein on account of fraud.

“Fraudulent” actions are for personal financial gain and loss to another.[58]

The court found that Sewanyana and the second respondent company acted fraudulently. The question of whose fraud should affect title was addressed in Kampala Bottlers Ltd v Damanico (U) Ltd: the transferee must have directly participated in the fraud, or fraud may be implied where the transferee has knowledge of another person’s fraud that she acts on for her own benefit.[59]

Relatedly, in Frederick JK Zaabwe v Orient Bank, at the time of execution of the agreement of sale to Hussein, the appellant had lodged a caveat on the title; Hussein’s advocates knew about this and wrote to the registrar about its removal. The Supreme Court imputed the advocates’ knowledge on Hussein; he had constructive notice of the appellant’s interest in the land.[60] Hussein was not a bona fide purchaser for value without notice.

Courts have modified the Torrens system in response to social realities. Beyond searching the register, one must visit the land and consult occupants and neighbours about its ownership.

In Mary Buyondo, discussed above, the purchaser of the property on default of the mortgage did not qualify as bona fide for value without notice, since the appellant and genuine owner was in occupation of the land sold by the bank.[61] If the purchaser had talked to her, ownership would have been verified. Since she did not, notice of another competing claim was imputed on her.

This is also the principle enunciated by the High Court in Konde Mathias Zimula v Byarugaba: “a purchaser who knows or who ought to have found out that the property purchased is in the hands or occupation of some person other than the vendor is affected with constructive notice… abstention from inquiry evidences a want of good faith.”[62]

Fraud in land law can take various forms, including but not limited to:

1. Forgeries of land titles[63], occur when individuals create fake land titles or forge existing ones to claim ownership of land that does not belong to them[64]. Forgeries of land titles can be used to deceive potential buyers or lenders and illegally transfer ownership. This also includes forgeries of transfers of ownership in land, such as forged powers of attorney[65]

2. Fraudulent land registry/ Falsehoods of status of land[66] this involves corrupt practices within the land registry system, where officials manipulate or alter land records for personal gain[67].

This can include unauthorized changes to ownership details, illegal issuance of duplicate titles, or tampering with land boundaries.[68]Furthermore this also extends to declaring that there no developments on the land and insertion of wrong prices in land purchase agreements[69]

Delay in ownership transfer Fraud can also manifest in the form of intentional delays in the transfer of land ownership, causing financial losses and legal complications for the parties involved . This can occur when individuals intentionally stall the registration process or create unnecessary bureaucratic hurdles. This also happens when there are multiple transfers of the land to different holders[70]

The need for thoughtful and careful stewardship of land, alongside use and management of its resources, has emerged as mater of major global concern [71]. This has led to a re-evaluation of both the need for information about land and the strategies and programmes that may provide for it [72].

Consequently, digitalisation of Land Registries resulting from the application of information and communication technologies has emerged as a new pattern to ensure that accurate Land information is available on land sizes ,location and proprietary characteristics ,substantive and anticipated values and land use quality[73].

The International Records Management Trust[74], ICT utilisation in Land administration contributes to improving land information management.However most digitalising initiatives fail because of ignoring the need to specify the technical and organisational design [75].

Countries, therefore, face two challenges: first, the strategic challenge of e-readiness. Second, adopting best practices in land digitalisation projects to avoid failure/ putting measures that would avoid fraudulent dealings in transactions from occurring [76].

The traditional land registry model was prone to malpractices and security concerns[77].

Accordingly, as noted by Creuzer, P & Kjellson, B. in Public-private partnership in land administration for the fourth session of the working party on land administration. Geneva [78]. The digital land registry system, often based on blockchain technology, provides enhanced security, transparency, and immutability of land records.[79] . It ensures that all transactions and changes in ownership are recorded in a tamper-proof manner, reducing the risk of fraudulent activities[80].

By digitizing land records, the system minimizes the chances of counterfeit land titles and unauthorised alterations to land records [81]. It enables easy verification of ownership and eliminates the need for physical documents that can be easily manipulated [82] . Additionally, the transparency of the digital land registry system allows for greater accountability and reduces the opportunities for corruption within the land administration process[83]. Furthermore, the digital land registry system facilitates efficient and timely settlement of land transactions, reducing the potential for fraud arising from delays in ownership transfer [84] . The use of smart contracts and automated processes streamlines the registration process, ensuring that transactions are executed promptly and accurately [85]

1.4: Blockchain Technology as means to end fraud

Blockchain technology is a powerful tool in combating fraud in land dealings by providing transparency, security, and immutability to the process. Leveraging blockchain technologies in land registry management can significantly reduce the risk of fraud and corruption by ensuring transparent and trustworthy land transfers.

The decentralized ledger system of blockchain, characterized by its immutability and cryptographic integrity, reshapes land security by offering an innovative framework for recording, verifying, and managing land-related transactions.

By implementing blockchain-based land certificate management systems, countries like Indonesia have successfully minimized the possibility of corruption in land ownership registration.

Moreover, the use of private blockchains in real estate management systems has been shown to decrease fraud and enhance transparency in real estate transactions . Blockchain technology can prevent and deter fraud during transactions within the real estate ecosystem by providing a secure and transparent architecture.

Introducing comprehensive systems where user authentication is conducted through unique identifiers like Aadhaar numbers and properties are represented as on-Fungible Tokens (FTs) can establish a robust framework for fraud prevention in real estate dealings Blockchain technology's ability to record transactions in a tamper-proof and transparent manner simplifies fraud detection and investigation by maintaining a secure and auditable record of all transactions and associated data.

By enforcing contracts quickly and efficiently disbursing subsidies, blockchain technology aids in preventing fraud and enhancing trust among stakeholders . Additionally, blockchain technology can be a solution to land disputes by providing a secure and immutable record of land ownership

In conclusion, blockchain technology offers a promising means to end fraud in land dealings by introducing transparency, security, and immutability to the process. By leveraging the decentralised and secure nature of blockchain, countries and organisations can significantly reduce the risk of fraud and corruption in land transactions.

Written and Authored by Byaruhanga Joshua Morris

Contact - joshmorris728@gmail.com / 0782574416

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list of citations

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[6] Brayan A Ganner : Blacks Law Dictionary 6th Edition at Page 660

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[8] https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200227-uganda-rolls-out-digital-land-registry-eradicate-fraud-fake-titles

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[10] Independent. (2022, February 18). Four charged in Mukono over fraudulent sale of land. The Independent Uganda: https://www.independent.co.ug/four-charged-in-mukono-over-fraudulent-sale-of-land/

[11] Land fraud cases increased in 2022 – Police. (n.d.). New Vision. https://www.newvision.co.ug/category/news/land-fraud-cases-increased-in-2022-police-155253

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[14] Ekemode, B., Adegoke, O., & Aderibigbe, (2017). Factors influencing land title registration practice in osun state, nigeria. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment, 9(3), 240-255. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlbe-04-2017-0014

[15] Ehwi, R. and Asante, L. (2016). Ex-post analysis of land title registration in ghana since 2008 merger. Sage Open, 6(2), 215824401664335. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016643351

[16]Ekemode, B., Adegoke, O., & Aderibigbe, (2017). Factors influencing land title registration practice in osun state, nigeria. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment, 9(3), 240-255. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlbe-04-2017-0014

Ehwi, R. and Asante, L. (2016). Ex-post analysis of land title registration in ghana since 2008 merger. Sage Open, 6(2), 215824401664335. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016643351

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Umar, B. and Banda, D. (2021). Challenges and opportunities for rural men and women in land conversion processes in central zambia. University of Zambia Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences, 5(4), 53-68. https://doi.org/10.53974/unza.jabs.5.4.591

[17] Ibid

[18] Ibid

[19] Brown, A. (2015). Topic guide: planning for sustainable and inclusive cities in the global south.. https://doi.org/10.12774/eod_tg.march2015.browna

[20] Ibid

[21] Nakayi, R. (2022). Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. Journal of African Law, 67(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021855322000286

[22] Ibid

[23] Nakayi, R. (2022). Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. Journal of African Law, 67(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021855322000286

[24] Ibid

[25] Ibid

[26] Ibid

[27] Ibid

[28] Ibid

[29] Ibid

[30] Keenan, S. (2018). From historical chains to derivative futures: title registries as time machines. Social & Cultural Geography, 20(3), 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2018.1460862

[31] Ibid

[32] Ibid

[33] Ibid

[34] Ibid

[35] Ibid

[36] Ibid

[37] Ibid

[38] Ibid

[39] Ganiron, T. and Australasia, N. (2014). Analysis of double meridian distance for a closed traverse area towards developing a contour map and land title. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review, 7(2), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.25103/jestr.071.06

[40] Abdulai, R. and Ochieng, E. (2017). Land registration and landownership security. Property Management, 35(1), 24-47. https://doi.org/10.1108/pm-09-2015-0051

[41] Abdulai, R. and Ochieng, E. (2017). Land registration and landownership security. Property Management, 35(1), 24-47. https://doi.org/10.1108/pm-09-2015-0051

[42] Ibid

[43] Ibid

[44] Ibid

[45] Ibid

[46] Ibid

[47] Ibid

[48] Nakayi, R. (2022). Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. Journal of African Law, 67(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021855322000286

[49] Nakayi, R. (2022). Certificate of title: a discussion of contemporary challenges to the protection of land interests in uganda. Journal of African Law, 67(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021855322000286

[50] Ibid

[51] HC Black Black’s Law Dictionary (6th ed, 1994, Publisher’s Editorial Staff) at 600. Also see the case note at 22.

[52] Shuaib, M., Alam, S., Ahmed, R., Qamar, S., Nasir, M., & Alam, M. (2022). Current status, requirements, and challenges of blockchain application in land registry. International Journal of Information Retrieval Research, 12(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijirr.299934

[53] Ibid

[54] RTA, secs 64(1), 176(c), 178(a) and 181.

[55] Supreme Court civil appeal no 12 of 1985.

[56] Supreme Court civil appeal no 4 of 2006.

[57] HC Black Black’s Law Dictionary (6th ed, 1994, Publisher’s Editorial Staff) at 600. Also see the case note at 22.

[58] Ibid.

[59] Supreme Court civil appeal no 22 of 1992, Wambuzi CJ at 7.

[60] The appellant lived and ran a law firm on the land.

[61] Mary Buyondo, above at note 114 at 13; Uganda Posts, above at note 126.

[62] Civil suit no 66 of 2007.

[63] Panda, S., Mohammad, G., Mohanty, S., & Sahoo, S. (2021). Smart contract‐based land registry system to reduce frauds and time delay. Security and Privacy, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/spy2.172

[64] Panda, S., Mohammad, G., Mohanty, S., & Sahoo, S. (2021). Smart contract‐based land registry system to reduce frauds and time delay. Security and Privacy, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/spy2.172

[65] Konde Mathias Zimula v Byarugaba

[66] Ibid

[67] Ibid

[68] https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/mukono-lands-office-closed-over-forgery-4337102

[69] Betty Kizito v David Kanonya Civil Appeal No.8 of 2018

Samuel Kizito Mubiru v Byensiba & Annor HCCS 513 of 1982

[70] Ibid

[71] Saxena N 2005 . Land Aadministration in India and its International Framework and its Institutional Framework London PASS Depertment for International Development

[72] International Records Management Trust ( IRMT), 2008.Fostering trust and Transparency ,Investigating and adressing the requirements for buiding integrity in the public sector information systems in thr ICT Botswana Case Study London IMRT

[73] United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2006. Land administration in the

UNECE region: Development trends and main principles. Geneva: United Nations.

[74] Ibid

[75] Creuzer, P & Kjellson, B. 2005. Public-private partnership in land administration for the fourth session of

the working party on land administration. Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for

Europe (UNECE)

[76] Ibid

[77] Ibid

[78] Ibid

[79] Ibid

[80] Ibid

[81] Ibid